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<title>Optometry</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Optometry</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the medical diagnosis and treatment of eyes, see <a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a>.</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1295905060">

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</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="padding-bottom:0.25em;">Optometry</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding-top:0.25em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="Eye_examination" title="Eye examination">Eye examination</a> with the aid of a <a href="Slit_lamp" title="Slit lamp">slit lamp</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">System</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><b><a href="Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Significant <span style="padding-left:1px;">diseases</span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Blurred_vision" title="Blurred vision">Blurred vision</a>, <a href="Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a>, <a href="Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a>, <a href="Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a>, <a href="Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">refractive error</a>, <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retinal disorders</a>, <a href="Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic retinopathy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-top:0.185em;line-height:1.15em; padding-right:0.5em;">Significant <span style="padding-left:1px;">tests</span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Visual_field_test" title="Visual field test">Visual field test</a>, <a href="Ophthalmoscopy" title="Ophthalmoscopy">ophthalmoscopy</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Optometry</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Names</th><td class="infobox-data">Doctor of Optometry, Optometrist</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Occupation type</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Health Profession</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">Healthcare</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Competencies</th><td class="infobox-data">refractive error, ocular disease, medical therapeutics, binocular vision, sports vision, vision therapy, contact lenses</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Doctor of Optometry / Master of Optometry / Bachelor of Optometry</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br>employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospital</a>, <a href="Clinic" title="Clinic">clinic</a>, <a href="Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p><b>Optometry</b> is the healthcare practice concerned with examining the eyes for visual defects, prescribing corrective lenses, and detecting eye abnormalities.

</p><p>In the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, optometrists are those that hold a post-baccalaureate four-year <a href="Doctor_of_Optometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Optometry">Doctor of Optometry</a> degree. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions, in addition to providing refractive (optical) eye care. Within their scope of practice, optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance(s) (example: Medicare) accordingly.

</p><p>In the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, optometrists may also provide medical care (e.g. prescribe medications and perform various surgeries) for eye-related conditions in addition to providing refractive care. The Doctor of Optometry degree is rarer in the UK.

</p><p>Many optometrists participate in academic research for eye-related conditions and diseases. In addition to prescribing glasses and contact lenses for vision related deficiencies, optometrists are trained in monitoring and treating ocular disease-pathologies.

</p><p>The range of training for optometrists varies greatly between countries. Some countries only require certificate training while others require a doctoral degree.

</p><p>In the United States, optometrists typically hold a four-year college degree, a four-year Doctor of Optometry degree, and have the option to complete a one-year residency program.

</p><p>By comparison, in the United States, <a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmologists</a> are medical doctors (MDs and DOs) who typically hold a four-year college degree, a four-year medical degree, and additional years of training after medical school in an ophthalmology residency (at least four years) during which they receive training in advanced medical management of eye disease and ocular surgery.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

<p>The term "optometry" comes from the Greek words <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BD%84%CF%88%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw external" title="wikt:ὄψις">ὄψις</a></i> (<i>opsis</i>; "view") and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%AD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw external" title="wikt:μέτρον">μέτρον</a></i> (<i>metron</i>; "something used to measure", "measure", "rule"). The word entered the language when the instrument for measuring vision was called an <a href="Optometer_(ophthalmic_instrument)" title="Optometer (ophthalmic instrument)">optometer</a>, (before the terms <a href="Phoropter" title="Phoropter">phoropter</a> or refractor were used). The root word <i>opto</i> is a shortened form derived from the Greek word <i>ophthalmos</i> meaning, "eye." Like most healthcare professions, the education and certification of optometrists are regulated in most countries. Optometric professionals and optometry-related organizations interact with governmental agencies, other healthcare professionals, and the community to deliver eye and vision care.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_of_optometry_and_optometrist">Definition of optometry and optometrist</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="World_Council_of_Optometry" title="World Council of Optometry">World Council of Optometry</a>, <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> and about 75 optometry organizations from over 40 countries have adopted the following definition, to be used to describe optometry and optometrist.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Optometry is a healthcare profession that is autonomous, educated, and regulated (licensed/registered), and optometrists are the primary healthcare practitioners of the eye and visual system who provide comprehensive eye and vision care, which includes refraction and dispensing, detection/diagnosis and management of disease in the eye, and the rehabilitation of conditions of the visual system.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Optometric history is tied to the development of

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Vision_science" title="Vision science">vision science</a> (related areas of medicine, microbiology, neurology, physiology, psychology, etc.)</li>

<li>optics, <a href="History_of_optics" title="History of optics">optical aids</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">optical instruments</a>, imaging techniques</li>

<li>other <a href="Eye_care_professional" title="Eye care professional">eye care professions</a></li></ul>

<p>The history of optometry can be traced back to the early studies on optics and image formation by the eye. The origins of optical science (optics, as taught in a basic physics class) date back a few thousand years as evidence of the existence of lenses for <a href="Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decoration</a> has been found in Greece and the Netherlands.

</p><p>It is unknown when the first <a href="Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectacles">spectacles</a> were made. The British scientist and historian <a href="Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Sir Joseph Needham</a>, in his <i>Science and Civilization in China</i>, reported the earliest mention of spectacles was in Venetian guild regulations <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300</span>. He suggested that the occasional claim that spectacles were invented in China may have come from a paper by German-American anthropologist <a href="Berthold_Laufer" title="Berthold Laufer">Berthold Laufer</a>. Per Needham, the paper by Laufer had many inconsistencies, and that the references in the document used by Laufer were not in the original copies but added during the Ming dynasty. Early Chinese sources mention the eyeglasses were imported.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Research by David A. Goss in the United States shows they may have originated in the late 13th century in Italy as stated in a <a href="Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a> from 1305 where a monk from Pisa named Rivalto stated "It is not yet 20 years since there was discovered the art of making eyeglasses".<sup id="cite_ref-A_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spectacles were manufactured in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands by 1300. Needham stated spectacles were first made shortly after 1286.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1907, Laufer stated in his history of spectacles 'the opinion that spectacles originated in India is of the greatest probability and that spectacles must have been known in India earlier than in Europe'.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as already mentioned, Joseph Needham showed that the references Laufer cited were not in the older and best versions of the document Laufer used, leaving his claims unsupported.

</p><p>In Sri Lanka, it is well-documented that during the reign of King Bhuvanekabahu the IV (AD 1346 – 1353) of the Gampola period the ancient tradition of optical lens making with a natural stone called Diyatarippu was given royal patronage. A few of the craftsmen still live and practice in the original hamlet given to the exponents of the craft by royal decree. But the date of King Bhuvanekabahu is decades after the mention of spectacles in the Venetian guild regulations <sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and after the 1306 sermon by Dominican friar Giordano da Pisa, where da Pisa said the invention of spectacles was both recent and that he had personally met the inventor <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The German word <i>brille</i> (eyeglasses) is derived from <a href="Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <i>vaidurya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Etymologically, <i>brille</i> is derived from <a href="Beryl" title="Beryl">beryl</a>, Latin <i>beryllus</i>, from Greek <i>beryllos</i>, from <a href="Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> <i>verulia</i>, <i>veluriya</i>, from Sanskrit <i>vaidurya</i>, of Dravidian origin from the city of <i>Velur</i> (modern <i>Belur</i>). Medieval Latin <i>berillus</i> was also applied to eyeglasses, hence German <i>brille</i>, from Middle High German <i>berille</i>, and French <i>besicles</i> (plural) <i>spectacles</i>, altered from old French <i>bericle</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Benito Daza de Valdes published the first full book on opticians in 1623, where he mentioned the use and fitting of eyeglasses.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1692, William Molyneux wrote a book on optics and <a href="Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> where he stated his ideas on <a href="Myopia" title="Myopia">myopia</a> and problems related to close-up vision. The scientists Claudius Ptolemy and Johannes Kepler also contributed to the creation of optometry. Kepler discovered how the <a href="Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> in the eye creates <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">vision</a>. From 1773 until around 1829, Thomas Young discovered the disability of <a href="Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">astigmatism</a> and it was George Biddell Airy who designed glasses to correct that problem that included sphero-cylindrical lens.<sup id="cite_ref-B_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Although the term optometer appeared in the 1759 book <i>A Treatise on the Eye: The Manner and Phenomena of Vision</i> by Scottish physician William Porterfield, it was not until the early twentieth century in the United States and Australia that "optometry" began to be used to describe the profession. By the early twenty-first century, however, marking the distinction with dispensing <a href="Optician" title="Optician">opticians</a>, it had become the internationally accepted term.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diseases">Diseases</h2></div>

<p>A partial list of the common diseases optometrists diagnose/manage:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">Amblyopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cataracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataracts">Cataracts</a></li>

<li><a href="Corneal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Corneal disease">Corneal disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">Diabetic retinopathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Dry_eye_syndrome" title="Dry eye syndrome">Dry eye syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_neoplasm" title="Eye neoplasm">Eye neoplasm</a></li>

<li><a href="Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypertensive_retinopathy" title="Hypertensive retinopathy">Hypertensive retinopathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">Macular degeneration</a></li>

<li><a href="Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error (including astigmatism)</a></li>

<li><a href="Strabismus" title="Strabismus">Strabismus</a></li>

<li><a href="Uveitis" title="Uveitis">Uveitis</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eye_examination">Eye examination</h3></div>

<p>Following are examples of examination methods performed during an <a href="Eye_examination" title="Eye examination">eye examination</a> that enables diagnosis

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Ocular_tonometry" title="Ocular tonometry">Ocular tonometry</a> to determine <a href="Intraocular_pressure" title="Intraocular pressure">intraocular pressure</a></li>

<li><a href="Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a> assessment</li>

<li><a href="Retina" title="Retina">Retina</a> examination</li>

<li><a href="Slit_lamp" title="Slit lamp">Slit lamp examination</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">Visual acuity</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_vision_test" title="Color vision test">Color vision test</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_field_test" title="Visual field test">Visual field test</a></li>

<li><a href="Corneal_topography" title="Corneal topography">Corneal topography</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialized_tests">Specialized tests</h3></div>

<p><a href="Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">Optical coherence tomography</a> (OCT) is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. The information is then used by eye doctors to assess staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Training,_licensing,_representation_and_scope_of_practice">Training, licensing, representation and scope of practice</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_optometry_schools" title="List of optometry schools">List of optometry schools</a></div>

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<p>Optometry is officially recognized in many jurisdictions.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most have regulations concerning education and practice. Optometrists, like many other healthcare professionals, are required to participate in ongoing continuing education courses to stay current on the latest standards of care.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3></div>

<p>In 1993, five countries in Africa had optometric teaching institutes: <a href="Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethiopia began offering optometric education in 2005 at the <a href="University_of_Gondar" title="University of Gondar">University of Gondar</a> (UoG).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Kenya, two universities, <a href="Masinde_Muliro_University_of_Science_and_Technology" title="Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology">Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology</a> (MMUST) and Kaimosi Friends University, offer a Bachelor of Science in Optometry and Vision Sciences.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sudan">Sudan</h4></div>

<p>Sudan's major institution for the training of optometrists is the Faculty of Optometry and Visual Sciences (FOVS), originally established in 1954 as the Institute of Optometry in Khartoum; the Institute joined with the Ministry of Higher Education in 1986 as the High Institute of Optometry, and was ultimately annexed into Alneelain University in 1997 when it was renamed the FOVS. The FOVS offers several programs: a BSc in Optometry, which takes 5 years and includes sub-specialization in <a href="Orthoptics" title="Orthoptics">orthoptics</a>, contact lenses, ocular photography, or ocular neurology; a BSc in Ophthalmic Technology, requiring 4 years of training; and a BSc in Optical Dispensary, completed in 4 years. The FOVS also offers MSc and PhD degrees in optometry. The FOVS is the only institute of its kind in Sudan and was the first institution of higher education in Optometry in the Middle East and Africa. In 2010, Alneelain University Eye Hospital was established as part of the FOVS to expand training capacity and to serve broader Sudanese community.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ghana">Ghana</h4></div>

<p>The <a href="Ghana_Optometric_Association" title="Ghana Optometric Association">Ghana Optometric Association</a> (GOA) regulates the practice of <a href="Optometry_in_Ghana" title="Optometry in Ghana">Optometry in Ghana</a>. The <a href="Kwame_Nkrumah_University_of_Science_and_Technology" title="Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology">Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="University_of_Cape_Coast" title="University of Cape Coast">University of Cape Coast</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are the two universities that offer the degree programme in the country. After the six-year training at any of the two universities offering the course, the O.D. degree is awarded. The new optometrist must write a qualifying exam, after which the optometrist is admitted as a member of the GOA, leading to the award of the title MGOA.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mozambique">Mozambique</h4></div>

<p>The first optometry course in <a href="Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> was started in 2009 at <a href="L%C3%BArio_University" title="Lúrio University">Universidade Lurio</a>, <a href="Nampula" title="Nampula">Nampula</a>. The course is part of the Mozambique Eyecare Project. <a href="University_of_Ulster" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Ulster">University of Ulster</a>, <a href="Dublin_Institute_of_Technology" title="Dublin Institute of Technology">Dublin Institute of Technology</a> and <a href="Brien_Holden_Vision_Institute" title="Brien Holden Vision Institute">Brien Holden Vision Institute</a> are supporting partners. As of 2019, 61 Mozambican students had graduated with optometry degrees

from UniLúrio (34 male and 27 female).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nigeria">Nigeria</h4></div>

<p>In Nigeria, optometry is regulated by the <a href="Optometrists_and_Dispensing_Opticians_Registration_Board_of_Nigeria" title="Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Registration Board of Nigeria">Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Registration Board of Nigeria</a> established under the Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians (Registration etc.) Act of 1989 (Cap O9 Laws of Federation of Nigeria 2004). The Board publishes from time to time lists of approved qualifications and training institutions in the federal government gazette.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Optometry education began at the <a href="University_of_Benin_(Nigeria)" title="University of Benin (Nigeria)">University of Benin</a> in 1970, initially as a four-year bachelor's degree program, making it the first optometry school in West Africa. In 1980, <a href="Abia_State_University" title="Abia State University">Abia State University</a> introduced the Doctor of Optometry program. The University of Benin upgraded its program to the Doctor of Optometry degree in 1994. Subsequently, Doctor of Optometry programs were established at other public and private universities. The Doctor of Optometry degree is awarded after six years of training at one of the accredited universities located in Edo, Imo, Kano, Kwara, and Abia states.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</h4></div>

<p>Optometry was first introduced in Bangladesh in 2010 at the Institute of Community Ophthalmology under the Faculty of Medicine, <a href="University_of_Chittagong" title="University of Chittagong">University of Chittagong</a>. This institute offers a four-year Bachelor of Science in Optometry (B.Optom) course. As of 2017, there are 200 graduate optometrists in Bangladesh.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The association that controls the quality of optometry practice across the country is the Optometrists Association of Bangladesh, which is also a country member of the World Council of Optometry (WCO).

</p><p>In 2018, <a href="Chittagong_Medical_University" title="Chittagong Medical University">Chittagong Medical University</a> was established, and the BSc in Optometry course was transferred to this university.

</p><p>In Bangladesh, optometrists perform primary eye care like diagnosis and primary management of some ocular diseases, prescribe eye glasses, low vision rehabilitation, provide vision therapy, contact lens practice and all type of orthoptic evaluations and therapies.

</p><p>Registration from Government’s Health Ministry is still pending for unknown reason.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4></div>

<p>In China, optometric education only began in 1988 at the <a href="Wenzhou_Medical_University" title="Wenzhou Medical University">Wenzhou Medical University</a>. Since that time, the discipline and the profession have emerged as a five-year, medically based program within the medical education system of China. Students in the program receive the highest level of training in Optometry and are provided with the credentials needed to assume positions of leadership in China's medical education and health care systems. In 2000, the Ministry of Health formally accepted Optometry as a subspecialty of medicine.

</p>

<p>The Optometrists Board of the Supplementary Medical Professions Council regulates the profession in Hong Kong.<sup id="cite_ref-Supplementary_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Supplementary-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Optometrists are listed in separate parts of the register based on their training and ability. Registrants are subject to restrictions depending on the part they are listed in.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who pass the examination on refraction conducted by the Board may be registered to Part III, thereby restricted to practice only work related to <a href="Eye_examination#Refraction" title="Eye examination">refraction</a>. Those who have a Higher Certificate in Optometry or have passed the Board's optometry examination may be registered to Part II, thereby restricted in their use of diagnostic agents, but may otherwise practice freely. Part I optometrists may practice without restrictions and generally hold a bachelor's degree or a Professional Diploma.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>There are around 2000 optometrists registered in Hong Kong, 1000 of which are Part I.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is one Part I optometrist to about 8000 members of the public. The <a href="Hong_Kong_Polytechnic_University" title="Hong Kong Polytechnic University">Polytechnic University</a> runs the only optometry school. It produces around 35 Part I optometrists a year.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4></div>

<p>In 2010, it was estimated that India needed 115,000 optometrists. In contrast, India has approximately 15,000 optometrists Bachelor of Optometry (4-year trained as per University Grant Commission Notification 5 July 2014 ) and 50,000 Diploma in Optometry (2-year trained diploma conferred By State Medical Faculty). In order to prevent blindness or <a href="Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">visual impairment</a> more well-trained optometrists are required in India.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The definition of optometry differs considerably in different countries.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India needs more optometry schools offering four-year degree courses with a syllabus similar to that in force in those countries where the practice of optometry is statutorily regulated and well established with an internationally accepted definition.

</p><p>In 2013, it was reported in the <i><a href="Indian_Journal_of_Ophthalmology" title="Indian Journal of Ophthalmology">Indian Journal of Ophthalmology</a></i> that poor spectacle compliance amongst school children in rural <a href="Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a> resulted in significant vision loss.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 2015, it was reported that optometrists need to be more involved in providing core optometry services like binocular vision and low vision.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="History_of_Optometry_Education_in_India">History of Optometry Education in India</h5></div>

<p>1. In the beginning optometry education started in India during British rule in 1927, the first college was established in West Bengal with the name The Indian College of Optics and the certification was diploma in optometry.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>After the independence of India, the Directorate General Of Health Services (DGHS) Government of India in 1958, introduced the first (by the Central Government of india) optometry education in the form of a diploma in optometry with the collaboration of UP State Medical Faculty, Government Of Utter Pradesh, under the 2nd 5-year plan. The government offered diplomas in optometry courses of two years duration conferred by State Medical Faculties, empowered under the Indian Medical Degree Act, 1916 (as per Government of India Notification Department of Education, Health and Lands No,1964 dated 16 December 1926, effective from 15 November 1929). The first two schools of optometry were established at Gandhi Eye Hospital, Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh, (the first school of optometry started by Mohan Lal) and at <a href="Sarojini_Devi_Eye_Hospital" title="Sarojini Devi Eye Hospital">Sarojini Devi Eye Hospital</a>, Hyderabad in Telangana.

</p><p>2. Subsequently, four more schools were opened across India, situated at Sitapur Eye Hospital, Sitapur in Uttar Pradesh; Chennai (formerly Madras) in Tamil Nadu; Bengalooru (formerly Bangalore) in Karnataka; and the <a href="Regional_Institute_of_Ophthalmology%2C_Thiruvananthapuram" title="Regional Institute of Ophthalmology, Thiruvananthapuram">Regional Institute of Ophthalmology, Thiruvananthapuram</a> (formerly Trivandrum) in Kerala.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>3. The Elite School of Optometry (ESO) was established in 1985 in Chennai (The first school of optometry/college started by S. Badrinath) and was the first to offer a four-year degree course Baccalaureate of Science in Optometry (B.S. Optometry).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree was conferred only by the Shanker Netraliya (Elite School of Optometry and the first principal was E. Vaithilingam) instead of any university or state government authority, etc. After that, the B.S. in Optometry (under off-campus mode) was affiliated with Bitis Pilani University, Rajasthan, and now the same course re-affiliated with the new University of State of Tamilnadu, India.

</p><p>4. The School of Optometry at <a href="Bharati_Vidyapeeth" title="Bharati Vidyapeeth">Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University, Pune</a>, established in 1998, was the first to offer a four-year degree course and confer a Bachelor of Clinical Optometry. The university also provided a pathway for diploma holders to upgrade their education to a Degree of Optometry through a lateral entry program. Also, the first 2 years of the Master of Optometry course were introduced in 2003.

</p><p>5. <a href="All_India_Institute_of_Medical_Sciences%2C_New_Delhi" title="All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi">AIIMS-Delhi</a> introduced a two-year Diploma in Clinical Technology-Optometry (D.C.T. in Optometry) in 1973 and then upgraded the Diploma course to a 3-year B.Sc. (H) in Ophthalmic Technique in 1975. After that, the nomenclature to degree and course of duration changed from B.Sc. (H) to Bachelor of Optometry, four-year duration as per UGC Notification 2014 in the year new first batch of students passed out in the year 2019.

</p><p>6. At present, there are more than fifty schools of optometry and colleges in India, and over 100 universities confer Bachelor of Optometry (B.Optom) and Master of Optometry (M.Optom) professional degrees. Additionally, Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Optometry are awarded by universities recognized by the <a href="University_Grants_Commission_(India)" title="University Grants Commission (India)">University Grants Commission (India)</a>, a statutory body responsible for maintaining standards of higher education in India.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Optometrists across India are encouraged to register under the National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions Act, 2021, which was enacted by the Parliament of India in 2021. The Delhi Optometrists Association (DOA) has endorsed all updates related to optometry education in India.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malaysia">Malaysia</h4></div>

<p>It takes four years to complete a degree in optometry. As of 2022, optometry courses have been well received by citizens, with nearly 3,000 registered optometrists.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More universities and higher education studies are about to implement the courses, such as the <a href="National_Institute_of_Ophthalmic_Sciences" title="National Institute of Ophthalmic Sciences">National Institute of Ophthalmic Sciences</a> in <a href="Petaling_Jaya" title="Petaling Jaya">Petaling Jaya</a>. Other public universities that offer this course include <a href="National_University_of_Malaysia" title="National University of Malaysia">University Kebangsaan Malaysia</a> (UKM), <a href="Universiti_Teknologi_MARA" title="Universiti Teknologi MARA">Universiti Teknologi Mara</a> (UiTM), and <a href="International_Islamic_University_Malaysia" title="International Islamic University Malaysia">International Islamic University Malaysia</a> (IIUM). There are also private universities that offer this course such as <a href="Management_%26_Science_University" title="Management & Science University">Management and Science University</a> (MSU) and <a href="SEGi_University_and_Colleges" title="SEGi University and Colleges">SeGi University</a>. After completing the Degree in Optometry, optometrists who practice in Malaysia must register with the Malaysian Optical Council (MOC), which is an organization under the Ministry of Health.

</p><p>The Association of Malaysian Optometrists (AMO) is the only body that represents the Malaysian optometrist profession. All of the members are either local or overseas graduates in the field of optometry.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h4></div>

<p>Optometry is taught as a five/four-year Doctor/ Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors course at many institutions notable among which are Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore, Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology (PICO) Peshawar, Pakistan institute of Rehabilitation science Isra University campus Islamabad (PIRS), College of Ophthalmology & Allied Vision Sciences (COAVS) Lahore and Al-Shifa Institute of Ophthalmology Islamabad. After graduation, the optometrists can join a four-tiered service delivery level (Centre of Excellence, Tertiary/Teaching, District headquarter and sub-district /Tehsil headquarters). M.Phil. in Optometry is also available at select institutions such as King Edward Medical University, Lahore. Department of Optometry & Vision Sciences (DOVS) FAHS, ICBS, Lahore started bridging programmes for Bachelors/ Bachelors with Honors to become Doctor of Optometry OD, Post Professional Doctor of Optometry (PP-OD), Transitional Doctor of Optometry (t-OD). Optometry is not yet a regulated field in Pakistan as there is no professional licensing board or authority responsible for issuing practise licenses to qualified optometrists. This creates difficulty for Pakistani optometrists who wish to register abroad. The University of Lahore has recently launched Doctor of Optometry (OD). Imam Hussain Medical University also launched the Doctor of Optometry Program. The chairman of Imam Hussain Medical University, Sabir Hussain Babachan, vowed to regulate the OD curriculum according to international standards.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippines">Philippines</h4></div>

<p>Optometry is regulated by the <a href="Professional_Regulation_Commission" title="Professional Regulation Commission">Professional Regulation Commission of the Philippines</a>. To be eligible for licensing, each candidate must have satisfactorily completed a doctor of optometry course at an accredited institution and demonstrate good moral character with no previous record of professional misconduct. Professional organizations of optometry in the Philippines include Optometric Association of the Philippines<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Integrated Philippine Association of Optometrists, Inc. (IPAO).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saudi_Arabia">Saudi Arabia</h4></div>

<p>In Saudi Arabia, optometrists must complete a five-year doctor of optometry degree from <a href="Qassim_University" title="Qassim University">Qassim University</a> and <a href="King_Saud_University" title="King Saud University">King Saud University</a>. Also, they must complete a one-year residency.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Singapore">Singapore</h4></div>

<p>Tertiary education for optometrists consists of a 3-year diploma in optometry offered at institutions such as <a href="Singapore_Polytechnic" title="Singapore Polytechnic">Singapore Polytechnic</a> and <a href="Ngee_Ann_Polytechnic" title="Ngee Ann Polytechnic">Ngee Ann Polytechnic</a>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h4></div>

<p>The education of optometry in Taiwan commenced in 1982 at Shu-Zen College of Medicine and Management.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bachelor degrees in optometry can be obtained from seven universities (North to South): <a href="University_of_Kang_Ning" title="University of Kang Ning">University of Kang Ning</a>, <a href="Yuanpei_University_of_Medical_Technology" title="Yuanpei University of Medical Technology">Yuanpei University of Medical Technology</a>, <a href="Asia_University_(Taiwan)" title="Asia University (Taiwan)">Asia University</a>, <a href="Central_Taiwan_University_of_Science_and_Technology" title="Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology">Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology</a>, <a href="Chung_Shan_Medical_University" title="Chung Shan Medical University">Chung Shan Medical University</a>, <a href="Dayeh_University" title="Dayeh University">Dayeh University</a>, and <a href="Chung_Hwa_University_of_Medical_Technology" title="Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology">Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology</a>; whereas associate degrees in optometry can be obtained from Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, <a href="Hsin_Sheng_College_of_Medical_Care_and_Management" title="Hsin Sheng College of Medical Care and Management">Hsin Sheng College of Medical Care and Management</a>, Jen-Teh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing, and Management, and Shu-Zen College of Medicine and Management.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Law of Optometrists was established in Taiwan in 2015; since then, optometry students after obtaining optometry degrees, need to pass the National Optometry Examination of Taiwan to be registered as optometrists.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are approximately 4,000 optometrists in Taiwan as of 2020, and around 400 new optometrists register annunally (2018-2020).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thailand">Thailand</h4></div>

<p>Since late 1990, Thailand has set a goal to provide more than 600 optometrists to meet the minimal public demands and international standards in vision care. There are more than three university degree programs in Thailand. Each program accepts students that have completed grade 12th or the third year in high school (following US education model). These programs offer "Doctor of Optometry" degree to graduates from the program that will take six years to complete the courses. Practising optometrists will also be required to pass licensing examination (three parts examinations) that is administrated through a committee under the Ministry of Public Health.

</p><p>As of 2015, the number of practicing optometrists in Thailand is still fewer than one hundred. However, it has projected that the number of practising optometrists in Thailand will greatly increase within the next ten years. In the theoretical scenario, the number of optometrists should be able to meet minimal public demands around 2030 or earlier.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3></div>

<p>Since the formation of the <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, "there exists a strong movement, headed by the Association of European Schools and Colleges of Optometry (AESCO), to unify the profession by creating a European-wide examination for optometry" and presumably also standardized practice and education guidelines within EU countries.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first examinations of the new European Diploma in Optometry were held in 1998 and this was a landmark event for optometry in continental Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4></div>

<p>As of July 2003, there was no regulatory framework and optometrists were sometimes trained by completing an apprenticeship at an ophthalmologists' private office.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany">Germany</h4></div>

<p>Optometric tasks are performed by <a href="Ophthalmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophthalmologist">ophthalmologists</a> and professionally trained and certified <a href="Optician" title="Optician">opticians</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greece">Greece</h4></div>

<p>Hellenic Ministry of Education founded the first department of Optometry at <a href="Technological_Educational_Institute_of_Western_Greece" title="Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece">Technological Educational Institute of Patras</a> in 2007. After protests from the department of Optics at Technological Educational Institute of Athens (the only department of Optics in Greece, until 2006), the Government changed the names of the departments to "Optics and Optometry" and included lessons in both optics and optometry. Optometrists-Opticians have to complete a 4-year undergraduate honours degree. Then the graduates can be admitted to postgraduate courses in Optometry at universities around the world.

</p><p>Since 2015, a Master of Science (MSc) course in Optometry is offered by the Technological Educational Institute of Athens.

</p><p>The Institute of Vision and Optics (IVO) of the University of Crete focuses on the sciences of vision and is active in the fields of research, training, technology development and provision of medical services. <a href="Ioannis_Pallikaris" title="Ioannis Pallikaris">Ioannis Pallikaris</a> has received numerous awards and recognitions for the institute's contribution to <a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>. In 1989 he performed the first <a href="LASIK" title="LASIK">LASIK</a> procedure on a <a href="Human_eye" title="Human eye">human eye</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hungary">Hungary</h4></div>

<p>Optometrist education takes 4 years in the medical universities in Hungary, and they will get a Bachelor of Science degree. They work in networks and retail stores and private optics, very few are located in the Health Care care system as <a href="Ophthalmologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophthalmologist">ophthalmologists</a> as an assistant.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ireland">Ireland</h4></div>

<p>The profession of Optometry has been represented for over a century by the Association of Optometrists, Ireland [AOI]. In <a href="Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> an optometrist must first complete a four-year degree in optometry at <a href="Dublin_Institute_of_Technology" title="Dublin Institute of Technology">Dublin Institute of Technology</a>. Following successful completion of the degree, an optometrist must then complete professional qualifying examinations to enter the register of the Opticians Board [Bord na Radharcmhaistoiri]. Optometrists must be registered with the Board to practice in the Republic of Ireland.

</p><p>The A.O.I. runs a comprehensive continuing education and professional development program on behalf of Irish optometrists. The legislation governing optometry was drafted in 1956. Some feel that the legislation restricts optometrists from using their full range of skills, training and equipment for the benefit of the Irish public. The amendment to the Act in 2003 addressed one of the most significant restrictions: the use of <a href="Cycloplegic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycloplegic">cycloplegic</a> drugs to examine children.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4></div>

<p>The practice of optometry in Italy starts at the beginning of the 20th century; the historical practice of opticians date back to the 13th century. Optometry is traditionally taught as advanced study for opticians, currently as tertiary education (for example, in some private institutions, as Irsoo Vinci Institute near Firenze o IBZ Institute in Bologna and Milan). After 2001, nine universities (Milan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://otticaoptometria.dfa.unipd.it/">Padua</a>, Turin, <a href="University_of_Salento" title="University of Salento">Salento</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Florence, Naples, Rome, Perugia and Palermo) began similar three-year graduate courses (EQF level 6, equivalent to a BSc degree) of <i>scienze e tecnologie fisiche</i> (that is, "physical sciences and technologies") within physics departments. The degrees awarded in "optics and optometry" are classified in the family of physics degree, and do not allow recipients to practise optometry, per se; an external licence exam to become an ophthalmic optician is necessary to practise. Nevertheless, given that the practice of optometry is unregulated (notwithstanding that a specific code to start an optometry practice exists through the state), about one third of ophthalmic opticians are licensed to practise. As of 2025, in the current real-world practice, every optometrist is also licensed as an ophthalmic optician, and a minority of opticians have optometry education and practise optometry to a wide extent. It must be stressed that, in Italy, every optician can refract a patient autonomously (limited to myopia and presbyopia, but without age limits); opticians are part of the National Health System; and a <a href="Dispensing_optician" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispensing optician">dispensing optician</a> (not a profession in the health field) has never been regulated. Over the past thirty years, several verdicts from the High Court prove that optometry is a free practice and has specific education path;<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> its role is clearly different from those of ophthalmologist and orthoptist, and also from optician itself. Italian <a href="Italian_National_Institute_of_Statistics" title="Italian National Institute of Statistics">Istat</a> classification currently encompassses two professional roles: 3.2.1.6.1 – <i>Ottici e ottici optometristi</i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Norway">Norway</h4></div>

<p>In Norway, the optometric profession has been regulated as a healthcare profession since 1988. After a three-year bachelor program, one can practice basic optometry. At least one year in clinical practice qualify for a post-degree half-year <a href="Sandwich_course" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandwich course">sandwich course</a> in contact lens fitting, which is regulated as a healthcare speciality. A separate regulation for the use of diagnostic drugs in optometric practice was introduced in 2004.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4></div>

<p>In <a href="Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, optometry education has been accredited by the Federal Agency of Health and Social Development.

There are only two educational institutions that teach optometry in Russia: Saint Petersburg Medical Technical College, formerly known as St. Petersburg College of Medical Electronics and Optics, and The Helmholtz Research Institute for Eye Diseases. They both belong and are regulated by the Ministry of Health. The optometry program is a four-year program. It includes one to two science foundation years, one yer focused on clinical and proficiency skills, and one year of clinical rotations in hospitals. Graduates take college/state <a href="Examinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Examinations">examinations</a> and then receive a specialist <a href="Diploma" title="Diploma">diploma</a>. This diploma is valid for only five years and must be renewed every five years after receiving additional training at state-accredited programs.

</p><p>The scope of practice for optometrists in Russia includes refraction, contact lens fitting, spectacles construction and lens fitting (dispensing), low vision aids, foreign body removal, referrals to other specialists after clinical condition diagnoses (management of diseases in the eye).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Licensing">Licensing</h5></div>

<p>Optometrists in the United Kingdom are regulated by the <a href="General_Optical_Council" title="General Optical Council">General Optical Council</a> under the Opticians Act 1989 and distinguished from medical practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-Opticians_Act_1989_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Opticians_Act_1989-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Registration with the GOC is mandatory to practice optometry in the UK. Members of the <a href="College_of_Optometrists" title="College of Optometrists">College of Optometrists</a> (incorporated by a Royal Charter granted by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II)<sup id="cite_ref-Agarwal,_R._1995_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agarwal,_R._1995-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may use the suffix MCOptom.

</p><p>The <a href="National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> provides free sight tests and spectacle vouchers for children and those on very low incomes. The elderly and those with some chronic conditions like diabetes get free periodic tests.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment for eye conditions such as glaucoma and cataracts is free and checked for during normal eye examinations.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Training">Training</h5></div><p>

In the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, optometrists have to complete a 4-year undergraduate honours degree followed by a minimum of a one-year internship, "pre-registration period", during which they complete clinical practice under the supervision of a qualified and experienced practitioner. During this year the pre-registration candidate is given a number of quarterly assessments, often including temporary posting at a hospital, and on successfully passing all of these assessments, a final one-day set of examinations (details correct for candidates from 2006). Following successful completion of these assessments and having completed one year's supervised practice, the candidate is eligible to register as an optometrist with the <a href="General_Optical_Council" title="General Optical Council">General Optical Council</a> (GOC) and, should they so wish, are entitled to membership of the <a href="College_of_Optometrists" title="College of Optometrists">College of Optometrists</a>. Twelve universities offer Optometry in the UK: <a href="Anglia_Ruskin_University" title="Anglia Ruskin University">Anglia Ruskin</a>, <a href="Aston_University" title="Aston University">Aston</a>, <a href="University_of_Bradford" title="University of Bradford">Bradford</a>, <a href="Cardiff_University" title="Cardiff University">Cardiff</a>, <a href="City%2C_University_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="City, University of London">City</a>, <a href="Glasgow_Caledonian_University" title="Glasgow Caledonian University">Glasgow Caledonian</a>, <a href="University_of_Hertfordshire" title="University of Hertfordshire">Hertfordshire</a>, <a href="University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">Manchester</a>, <a href="University_of_Plymouth" title="University of Plymouth">Plymouth</a>, <a href="University_of_Portsmouth" title="University of Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a>, <a href="Ulster_University_at_Coleraine" title="Ulster University at Coleraine">Ulster at Coleraine</a> and <a href="University_of_the_West_of_England" title="University of the West of England">West of England</a>. </p>

<p>In 2008 the UK moved forward to offer the Doctor of Optometry postgraduate programme. This became available at the <a href="Institute_of_Optometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Optometry">Institute of Optometry</a> in London in partnership with <a href="London_South_Bank_University" title="London South Bank University">London South Bank University</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Doctor of Optometry postgraduate degree is also offered at one other UK institution: <a href="Aston_University" title="Aston University">Aston University</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Scope_of_Practice">Scope of Practice</h5></div>

<p>In 1990, a survey of the opinions of British medical practitioners regarding the services provided by British optometrists was carried out by Agarwal<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at City, University of London. A majority of respondents were in favour of optometrists extending their professional role by treating external eye conditions and prescribing broad-spectrum topical antibiotics through additional training and certification.

</p><p>Since 2009, optometrists in the UK have been able to undertake additional postgraduate training and qualifications that allow them to prescribe medications to treat and manage eye conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are currently three registerable specialities:

</p>

<ul><li>Additional supply speciality – to write orders for, and supply in an emergency, a range of drugs in addition to those ordered or supplied by a normal optometrist.</li>

<li>Supplementary prescribing speciality – to manage a patient's clinical condition and prescribe medicines according to a clinical management plan set up in conjunction with an independent prescriber, such as a GP or ophthalmologist or qualified optometrist.</li>

<li>Independent prescribing specialty – to take responsibility for the clinical assessment of a patient, establish a diagnosis and determine the clinical management required, including prescribing where necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>Optometrists in the United Kingdom are able to diagnose and manage most ocular diseases, and may also undertake further training to perform certain surgical procedures.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Training_2">Training</h5></div>

<p>In Canada, Doctors of Optometry typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four to five years of optometry studies, accredited by the Accreditation Council on Optometric Education. There are two such schools of optometry located in Canada — the <a href="University_of_Waterloo" title="University of Waterloo">University of Waterloo</a> and the <a href="Universit%C3%A9_de_Montreal" class="mw-redirect" title="Université de Montreal">Université de Montreal</a>. Canada also recognizes degrees from the twenty US schools.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Licensing_2">Licensing</h5></div>

<p>In Canada, Doctors of Optometry must write national written and practical board exams. Additionally, optometrists are required to become licensed in the province in which they wish to practice. Regulation of professions is within <a href="Section_92(13)_of_the_Constitution_Act%2C_1867" title="Section 92(13) of the Constitution Act, 1867">provincial jurisdiction</a>. Therefore, regulation of optometry is unique to individual provinces and territories. In Ontario, optometrists are licensed by the College of Optometrists of Ontario.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Representation">Representation</h5></div>

<p>In Canada, the profession is represented by the <a href="Canadian_Association_of_Optometrists" title="Canadian Association of Optometrists">Canadian Association of Optometrists</a>. In the province of Ontario, the Ontario Association of Optometrists is the designated representative of optometrists to the provincial government.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Scope_of_Practice_2">Scope of Practice</h5></div>

<p>Optometrists in Canada are trained and licensed to be primary eye care providers. They provide optical and medical eye care. They are able to diagnose and treat most eye diseases and can prescribe both topical and oral medications.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can also undertake further qualifications in order to perform some surgical procedures.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4></div>

<p>Optometrists, Doctors of Optometry, or Optometric Physicians are primary eye care providers. They provide comprehensive optical and medical eye care. They are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye related conditions - prescribe topical medications (prescription eye drops), oral medications as well as administer diagnostic agents.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some states, optometrists may also be licensed to perform certain types of <a href="Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">eye surgery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Scope_of_practice_3">Scope of practice</h5></div>

<p>Optometrists provide optical and medical eye care. They prescribe corrective lenses to aid refractive errors (e.g. myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism, double vision). They manage vision development in children including amblyopia diagnosis/treatment. Some perform vision therapy. They are trained to diagnose and manage any eye disease and their associations with systemic health. Optometrists are trained and licensed to practice medicine for eye-related conditions (including bacterial/viral infections, inflammation, glaucoma, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy). They can prescribe all topical medications (eye drops) and most oral medications (taken by mouth), including scheduled controlled substances. They may also remove ocular foreign bodies and order blood panels or imaging studies such as CT or MRI. Optometrists do not perform invasive surgery. However, Optometrists may perform superficial surgeries within the anterior segment of the eye in Oklahoma and Louisiana. Legislation permits Optometrists in Oklahoma and Kentucky to also perform certain laser procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Within their scope of practice optometrists are considered physicians and bill medical insurance plans accordingly.

</p><p>Optometrists in the United States are regulated by state boards, which vary from state to state.

</p><p>The Association of Regulatory Boards of Optometry (ARBO) assists these state board licensing agencies in regulating the practice of optometry.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Licensing_3">Licensing</h5></div>

<p>Optometrists must complete all course work and graduate from an accredited College of Optometry. This includes passage of all parts of the national board examinations as well as local jurisprudence examinations, which vary by state.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Education_and_Training">Education and Training</h5></div>

<p>Optometrists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies followed by four years of Optometry school. Some complete a 5th year of training. Their program is highly specific to the eyes and related structures. Optometrists receive their medical eye training while enrolled in Optometry school and during internships. Training may take place in colleges of Optometry, hospitals, clinics and private practices. In many instances Optometry students and Ophthalmology residents will co-manage medical cases. Instructors may be Optometrists, professors or physicians. The program includes extensive classroom and clinical training in geometric, physical, physiological and ophthalmic optics, specialty contact lens evaluation, general anatomy, ocular anatomy, ocular disease, pharmacology, ocular pharmacology, neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the visual system, pediatric visual development, gerontology, binocular vision, color vision, form, space, movement and vision perception, systemic disease, histology, microbiology, sensory and perceptual psychology, biochemistry, statistics and epidemiology.

</p><p>Optometrists are required to obtain continuing education credit hours to maintain licensure - number of hours varies by state.

</p><p>Optometrists prescribing schedule controlled substances are required to renew their DEA license every few years.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4></div>

<p>Australia currently has six recognized courses in optometry, and one course seeking to obtain accreditation with the Optometry council of Australia and New Zealand:

</p>

<ul><li>Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Optometry (BVisSci MOptom), <a href="Deakin_University" title="Deakin University">Deakin University</a></li>

<li>Bachelor of Medical Science (Vision Science) and Master of Optometry, <a href="Flinders_University" title="Flinders University">Flinders University</a></li>

<li>Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Clinical Optometry (BVisSc MClinOptom), <a href="University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</a></li>

<li>Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Optometry, <a href="Queensland_University_of_Technology" title="Queensland University of Technology">Queensland University of Technology</a></li>

<li>Bachelor of Vision Science and Master of Optometry, <a href="University_of_Canberra" title="University of Canberra">University of Canberra</a><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>Doctor of Optometry, <a href="Melbourne_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Melbourne University">Melbourne University</a> (<a href="Post-graduate" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-graduate">post-graduate</a>)</li>

<li>Doctor of Optometry, <a href="University_of_Western_Australia" title="University of Western Australia">University of Western Australia</a> (post-graduate)<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>To support these courses the <a href="Australian_College_of_Optometry" title="Australian College of Optometry">Australian College of Optometry</a> provides clinical placements to undergraduate students from Australian Universities and abroad.

</p><p>in 2016, almost 5000 optometrists in general practice were licensed with their regulatory body, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.optometryboard.gov.au/">Optometry Board of Australia</a>. Of these, approximately 2300 were registered with the scheduled medicines endorsement, which enables them to prescribe some medicines for the treatment of conditions of the eye.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Optometrists_Association_Australia" title="Optometrists Association Australia">Optometrists Association of Australia</a> works to protect the interests of optometrists in Australia.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h4></div>

<p>New Zealand currently has one recognised course in optometry:

</p>

<ul><li>Bachelor of Optometry (BOptom), <a href="The_University_of_Auckland" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Auckland">The University of Auckland</a></li></ul>

<p>In July 2014, the Medicines Amendment Act 2013 and Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2014 came into effect. Among other things, the changes to the Act name optometrists as authorised prescribers. This change enables optometrists with a therapeutic pharmaceutical agent (TPA) endorsement to prescribe all medicines appropriate to their scope of practice, rather than limiting them to a list of medicines specified in the regulation; this recognises the safe and appropriate prescribing practice of optometrists over the previous nine years.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brazil">Brazil</h4></div>

<p>The CBOO (Brazilian Council of Optics and Optometry), which is affiliated to the WCO (<a href="World_Council_of_Optometry" title="World Council of Optometry">World Council of Optometry</a>), represents Brazilian optometrists. In conjunction with organizations representative weight of Brazilian companies, including the National Commerce Confederation for goods, services and tourism (CNC), through the CBÓptica/CNC, its defence arm of the optometric and optical industry, are defending the right of free and independent practice of optometrists, even if it is against the interests of ophthalmologists.

</p><p>The Federal Supreme Court (STF), the Brazilian Court of Justice and the Superior Court of Justice (STJ), another important National Court, ruled several processes granting inquestionable victories to ophthalmologists.

</p><p>In Brazilian law, however, there is an explicit recommendation that the one prescribing corrective lenses are prohibited to sell them. This restricting rule to the ophthalmologists has to keep the optic shops away from Hospitals and Eye Care Clinics since 1930, and it has to be reviewed before any further regulation for the optometrists.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colombia">Colombia</h4></div>

<p>In <a href="Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, optometry education has been accredited by the Ministry of Health. The last official revision to the laws regarding healthcare standards in the country was issued in 1992 through the Law 30.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently there are eight official universities that are entitled by <a href="ICFES" title="ICFES">ICFES</a> to grant the optometrist certification. The first optometrists arrived in the country from North America and Europe <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1914</span>. These professionals specialized in optics and <a href="Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a>. In 1933, under <a href="Decree" title="Decree">Decrees</a> 449 and 1291, the Colombian Government officially set the rules for the formation of professionals in the field of optometry. In 1966 <a href="La_Salle_University%2C_Colombia" title="La Salle University, Colombia">La Salle University</a> opened its first Faculty of Optometry after a recommendation from a group of professionals. At present optometrists are encouraged to keep up with new technologies through congresses and scholarships granted by the government or the private sector (such as <a href="Bausch_%26_Lomb" title="Bausch & Lomb">Bausch & Lomb</a>).

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Eye_care_professional" title="Eye care professional">Eye care professional</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Council_of_Optometry" title="World Council of Optometry">World Council of Optometry</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Academy_of_Optometry" title="American Academy of Optometry">American Academy of Optometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_optometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral optometry">Behavioral optometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyeglass_prescription" title="Eyeglass prescription">Eyeglass prescription</a></li>

<li><a href="Least_distance_of_distinct_vision" title="Least distance of distinct vision">Least distance of distinct vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_neuroscience" title="Visual neuroscience">Visual neuroscience</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202015502/http://www.worldoptometry.org/en/our_members/index.cfm/page/1/">"Case study"</a>. <i>World Council of Optometry</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldoptometry.org/en/our_members/index.cfm/page/1/">the original</a> on 2 February 2017.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldcouncilofoptometry.info/concept-of-optometry">"WCO's Concept of Optometry - World Council of Optometry"</a>. 7 August 2020.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Sir Joseph Needham</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">"Science and Civilization in China—Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology; Part 1: Physics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160823000519/https://monoskop.org/images/7/70/Needham_Joseph_Science_and_Civilisation_in_China_Vol_4-1_Physics_and_Physical_Technology_Physics.pdf">Archived</a> 23 August 2016 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Monoskop.org. Retrieved 1 June 2015. pages 118 - 120</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-A-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190214125325/http://www.opt.indiana.edu/people/faculty/graphics/goss/opthx.pdf">"History of Optometry"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opt.indiana.edu/people/faculty/graphics/goss/opthx.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 14 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><b>Science and Civilization in China:</b> Volume 4, Part 1.</i> page 120</span>

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<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarr" class="citation web cs1">Carr, Liz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.optical.org/en/Education/Specialty_qualifications/Therapeutic_Prescribing_Specialties.cfm">"Therapeutic Prescribing specialties"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160410083022/https://opto.ca/sites/default/files/resources/documents/optometry_scope_across_canada_grid_january_2016_0.pdf">"Optometic scope of practice across Canada"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Canadian Association of Optometrists. January 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opto.ca/sites/default/files/resources/documents/optometry_scope_across_canada_grid_january_2016_0.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 April 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120514055951/https://www.aoa.org/Images/oral.gif">"We're sorry"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aoa.org/Images/oral.gif">the original</a> on 14 May 2012.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120513081007/http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~d_schadler/optometry.htm">"Oglethorpe University 2012"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~d_schadler/optometry.htm">the original</a> on 13 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucop.edu/hss/documents/optometry.pdf">University of California 2004</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120513080836/http://www.ucop.edu/hss/documents/optometry.pdf">Archived</a> 13 May 2012 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (page 3)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.visionmonday.com/latest-news/article/louisiana-governor-jindal-signs-law-permitting-optometrists-to-perform-certain-surgeries-1/">"Louisiana Governor Jindal Signs Law Permitting Optometrists to Perform Certain Surgeries"</a>. <i>Vision Monday</i>. 4 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goanagram.com/blog/can-optometrists-perform-surgery">"Anagram | Can optometrists perform surgery (or laser treatments)?"</a>. <i>www.goanagram.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.canberra.edu.au/coursesandunits/course?course_cd=372JA&version_number=1">"Course - University of Canberra"</a>. <i>www.canberra.edu.au</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFfs@uwa.edu.au" class="citation web cs1">fs@uwa.edu.au. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uwa.edu.au/study/Courses/Doctor-of-Optometry">"Doctor of Optometry"</a>. <i>UWA</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.optometryboard.gov.au/About/Statistics.aspx">"Optometry Board of Australia - Statistics"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.odob.health.nz/cms_display.php?sn=74&pg=1564">"GLA"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040911151134/http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/publicaciones/estandares/salud/anexo_ant_for_pro_cie_sal.htm">"Consejo Nacional de Acreditación"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/publicaciones/estandares/salud/anexo_ant_for_pro_cie_sal.htm">the original</a> on 11 September 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.oregonoptometry.org">http://www.oregonoptometry.org</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://oaop.org/oaop">http://oaop.org/oaop</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131104183857/http://oaop.org/oaop/">Archived</a> 4 November 2013 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://idaho.aoa.org">http://idaho.aoa.org</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131021065719/http://washington.aoa.org/">https://web.archive.org/web/20131021065719/http://washington.aoa.org/</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.njsop.org/aws/NJSOP/pt/sp/home_page">http://www.njsop.org/aws/NJSOP/pt/sp/home_page</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ijo.in/article.asp?issn=0301-4738;year=2012;volume=60;issue=5;spage=401;epage=405;aulast=De">http://www.ijo.in/article.asp?issn=0301-4738;year=2012;volume=60;issue=5;spage=401;epage=405;aulast=De</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www2.aston.ac.uk/study/courses/doctor-of-optometry">https://www2.aston.ac.uk/study/courses/doctor-of-optometry</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ispyjobs.com/optometry/">https://ispyjobs.com/optometry/</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Optometry" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Optometry">Optometry</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Senses/Vision/Optometry/">DMOZ optometry page</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Levels_of_academic_degree111" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Levels of <a href="Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Undergraduate_degree" title="Undergraduate degree">Undergraduate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">Associate degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundation_degree" title="Foundation degree">Foundation degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Higher_National_Diploma" title="Higher National Diploma">Higher National Diploma</a> / <a href="Diploma_of_Higher_Education" title="Diploma of Higher Education">Diploma of Higher Education</a> / <a href="Certificate_of_Higher_Education" title="Certificate of Higher Education">Certificate of Higher Education</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bachelor's_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor's degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">Honours degree</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 7</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Master's_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Postgraduate_diploma" title="Postgraduate diploma">Postgraduate diploma</a>/<a href="Postgraduate_certificate" title="Postgraduate certificate">certificate</a></li>

<li><a href="Diplom" title="Diplom">Diplom degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineer's_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 8</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li>

<li><a href="Candidate_of_Sciences" title="Candidate of Sciences">Candidate of Sciences</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Postdoctoral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Higher_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher doctorate">Higher doctorate</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Sciences" title="Doctor of Sciences">Doctor of Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Docent#Northern_Europe" title="Docent">Docent</a></li>

<li><a href="Academic_tenure" title="Academic tenure">Tenure</a></li>

<li><a href="Fellow" title="Fellow">Fellow</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">No dominant<br>classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Academic_certificate" title="Academic certificate">Academic certificate</a></li>

<li><a href="Artist_diploma" title="Artist diploma">Artist diploma</a></li>

<li><a href="External_degree" title="External degree">External degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Laurea" title="Laurea">Laurea</a></li>

<li><a href="Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licentiate</a></li>

<li><a href="Magister_degree" title="Magister degree">Magister degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Microdegree" title="Microdegree">Microdegree</a></li>

<li><a href="Professional_degree" title="Professional degree">Professional degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Graduate_diploma" title="Graduate diploma">Graduate diploma</a>/<a href="Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">certificate</a></li>

<li><a href="Higher_diploma" title="Higher diploma">Higher diploma</a></li>

<li><a href="Specialist_degree" title="Specialist degree">Specialist degree</a>/<a href="Education_in_Russia#Traditional_model" title="Education in Russia">diploma</a></li>

<li><a href="Terminal_degree" title="Terminal degree">Terminal degree</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unearned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">Honorary degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Ad_eundem_degree" title="Ad eundem degree"><i>Ad eundem</i> degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Arts_(Oxford%2C_Cambridge_and_Dublin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin)">Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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<ul><li><a href="Anesthesia_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Anesthesia technician">Anesthesia technician</a></li>

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<li><a href="Athletic_training" title="Athletic training">Athletic trainer</a></li>

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<li><a href="Electrocardiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrocardiogram">Cardiac physiologist</a></li>

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<li><a href="Hemodialysis" title="Hemodialysis">Hemodialysis technician</a></li>

<li><a href="Massage" title="Massage">Massage therapist</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_assistant" title="Medical assistant">Medical assistant</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_coder" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical coder">Medical coder</a></li>

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<li><a href="Nutritionist" title="Nutritionist">Nutritionist</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_therapy" title="Occupational therapy">Occupational therapist</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthotics" title="Orthotics">Orthotist</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmacy_technician" title="Pharmacy technician">Pharmacy technician</a></li>

<li><a href="Venipuncture" title="Venipuncture">Phlebotomist</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_therapy" title="Physical therapy">Physiotherapist</a></li>

<li><a href="Prosthesis" title="Prosthesis">Prosthetist</a></li>

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<li><a href="Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapist</a></li>

<li><a href="Radiographer" title="Radiographer">Radiographer</a></li>

<li><a href="Respiratory_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory therapy">Respiratory therapist</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_work" title="Social work">Social worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech%E2%80%93language_pathology" title="Speech–language pathology">Speech therapist</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q618211#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1552" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q618211#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1552" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Optometry"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85095209">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Optométrie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11975520h">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Optométrie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11975520h">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="optometrie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph123774&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007548407105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/d9ad5086-0274-4030-abff-27fdb1cdd3bc">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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